| During the last few decades a continuing but significant | | | | teaching materials that do provide such opportunities. |
| move has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on | | | | After teachers have studied their teaching context, |
| teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners | | | | begin to focus on specific LLS in their regular teaching |
| and learning. | | | | that are relevant to learners, materials, and teaching |
| This article provides an overview of key issues | | | | style. If teachers have found 10 different LLS for |
| concerning the use of language learning strategies | | | | writing explicitly used in your text, for example, they |
| (LLS) in second and foreign language (L2/FL) learning | | | | could highlight these as they go through the course, |
| and teaching | | | | giving students clear examples. |
| Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies | | | | Graham (1997) declares, LLS training "needs to be |
| (LS) broadly as "behaviours and thoughts that a | | | | integrated into students' regular classes if they are |
| learner engages in during learning" which are "intended | | | | going to appreciate their relevance for language |
| to influence the learner's encoding process”. Later | | | | learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and |
| Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as | | | | evaluate the strategies they develop and use; and |
| "behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence | | | | they need to be aware of the nature, function and |
| how the learner processes information”. | | | | importance of such strategies" . Whether it is a |
| A good number of definitions and meanings have been | | | | specific conversation, reading, writing, or other class, an |
| used for Language learning strategies (LLS) by key | | | | organized and informed focus on LLS and LLS training |
| figures in the field. Tarone (1983) defined a Learning | | | | will help students learn and provide more opportunities |
| strategy as "an attempt to develop linguistic and | | | | for them to take responsibility for their learning. |
| sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to | | | | As Graham suggests, "those teachers who have |
| incorporate these into one's interlanguage | | | | thought carefully about how they learned a language, |
| competence”. Rubin (1987) suggests that Learning | | | | about which strategies are most appropriate for which |
| strategies "are strategies which contribute to the | | | | tasks, are more likely to be successful in developing |
| development of the language system which the | | | | 'strategic competence' in their students" (p. 170). |
| learner constructs and affect learning directly”. | | | | Beyond contemplating one's own language learning, it is |
| O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined Learning | | | | also crucial to reflect on one's LLS training and |
| Strategies as "the special thoughts or behaviours that | | | | teaching in the classroom. After each class, for |
| individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain | | | | example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the |
| new information". Oxford (1990) views that language | | | | lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. An |
| learning strategies are the specific actions, behaviours, | | | | informal log of such reflections and one's personal |
| steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) | | | | assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on |
| use to improve their progress in developing language | | | | the actual lesson plans, might be used later to reflect |
| skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, | | | | on LLS training in the course as a whole after its |
| storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. | | | | completion. |
| Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement | | | | In addition to the teacher's own reflections, it is |
| necessary for developing communicative ability. At the | | | | essential to encourage learner reflection, both during |
| same time, we should note that LLS are distinct from | | | | and after the LLS training in the class or course. |
| learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner's | | | | In an interesting action research study involving "guided |
| "natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, | | | | reflection" As Graham (170) declares, "For learners, a |
| processing, and retaining new information and skills" | | | | vital component of self-directed learning lies in the |
| Reid (1995), though there appears to be an obvious | | | | on-going evaluation of the methods, they have |
| relationship between one's language learning style and | | | | employed on tasks and of their achievements within |
| his or her usual or preferred language learning | | | | the...programme" Whatever the context or method, it is |
| strategies. | | | | important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to |
| There are a number of basic characteristics in the | | | | reflect on their language learning and LLS use. |
| generally accepted view of LLS. | | | | The first, and most important, concerns the |
| • First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps | | | | professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS |
| taken by language learners. | | | | training in their work. As Davis (1997) has aptly noted, |
| • Second, LLS enhance language learning and help | | | | "our actions speak louder than words", and it is |
| develop language competence, as reflected in the | | | | therefore important for professionals who use LLS |
| learner's skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing | | | | training to also model such strategies both within their |
| the L2 or FL. | | | | classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in |
| • Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, | | | | their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously |
| techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental | | | | involve individuals' unique cognitive, social, and affective |
| processes). | | | | learning styles and strategies. As an educator I am |
| Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are | | | | interested in helping my students learn and reflect on |
| LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the | | | | their learning, but I also question the tone and motivation |
| part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one | | | | reflected in some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), |
| language or language skill to another is a related goal | | | | for example, seems to describe many of my |
| of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have | | | | Japanese EFL students when she writes: |
| discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford | | | | Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and |
| summarises her view of LLS by listing twelve key | | | | students. Yet while teachers hope to motivate our |
| features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, | | | | students and enhance their learning, professionally we |
| Skehan states that LLS: | | | | must be very clear not to manipulate them in the |
| • allow learners to become more self-directed | | | | process, recognising that ultimately learning is the |
| • expand the role of language teachers | | | | student's responsibility. If our teaching is appropriate |
| • are problem-oriented | | | | and learner-centred, we will not manipulate our |
| • involve many aspects, not just the cognitive | | | | students as we encourage them to develop and use |
| • can be taught | | | | their own LLS. Instead we will take learners' |
| • are flexible | | | | motivations and learning styles into account as we |
| • are influenced by a variety of factors | | | | teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL skills |
| Within 'communicative' approaches to language | | | | and LLS. |
| teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop | | | | The second reflection pertains to the integration of |
| communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and | | | | LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and |
| LLS can help students in doing so. Communication | | | | curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical, |
| strategies are used by speakers intentionally and | | | | noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might |
| consciously in order to cope with difficulties in | | | | be included in regular L2/FL classes. |
| communicating in a L2/FL. | | | | The related challenge, is how to integrate LLS into our |
| In addition to developing students' communicative | | | | L2/FL curriculum, especially in places like Bangladesh |
| competence, LLS are important because research | | | | where "learner-centred" approaches or materials may |
| suggests that training students to use LLS can help | | | | not be implemented very easily. Using texts which |
| them become better language learners. Early research | | | | incorporate LLS training, such as those in the Tapestry |
| on 'good language learners' by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, | | | | series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are |
| and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern | | | | mainly oriented to L2 ones. Many FL teachers include |
| (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that | | | | LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their |
| such students employ, ranging from using an active | | | | regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) |
| task approach in and monitoring one's L2/FL | | | | classes. This final point brings us to this and other |
| performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and | | | | questions for future LLS research. |
| speaking with native speakers. | | | | The article has provided a brief overview of Language |
| A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests | | | | Learning Strategies (LLS) by examining their |
| that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS | | | | background and summarizing the relevant literature. It |
| they use and why they use them. Graham's (1997) | | | | has also sketched out some ways that LLS training |
| work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers | | | | has been used and offered a three step approach for |
| can help students understand good LLS and should | | | | teachers to consider in implementing it within their own |
| train them to develop and use them. | | | | L2/FL classes. It has also upheld two important issues, |
| With the above background on Learning Strategies | | | | posed questions for further LLS study, and noted a |
| and some of the related literature, this section provides | | | | number of contacts that readers may use in |
| an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been | | | | networking on LLS in L2/FL education. |
| or may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes | | | | Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of |
| a three step approach to implementing LLS training in | | | | communicative approaches to second language |
| the L2/FL classroom. | | | | teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47. |
| LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety | | | | Cohen, A. (1990). Language Learning: Insights for |
| of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course | | | | Learners, Teachers, and Researchers. New York: |
| that appears to be becoming more popular, especially | | | | Newbury House. |
| in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the | | | | Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to Learn English: A |
| language learning process itself. | | | | Course in Learner Training. Cambridge: Cambridge |
| It is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, | | | | University Press. |
| paying special attention to their students, their materials, | | | | Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language |
| and their own teaching. If they are going to train their | | | | Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something | | | | Freeman, D., & Richards, J. (Eds.). (1996). Teacher |
| about these individuals, their interests, motivations, | | | | Learning in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge |
| learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in | | | | University Press. |
| class, for example, one will be able to see what LLS | | | | Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (Eds.). (1996). Tasks for |
| they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for | | | | Independent Language Learning. Alexandria, VA: |
| clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed | | | | TESOL. |
| briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or | | | | Graham, S. (1997). Effective Language Learning. |
| seem to have much contact outside of class with | | | | Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual |
| proficient L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, | | | | Nunan, D. (1995). Closing the gap between learning and |
| one can prepare a short questionnaire that students | | | | instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 133-158. |
| can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing | | | | Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the |
| themselves and their language learning. | | | | classroom: An action research study. TESOL Journal, |
| Talking to students informally before or after class, or | | | | 6(1), 35-41. |
| more formally interviewing select students about these | | | | Offner, M. (1997). Teaching English conversation in |
| topics can also provide a lot of information about one's | | | | Japan: Teaching how to learn. The Internet TESL |
| students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their | | | | Journal [on-line serial], 3(3) [March 1997]. |
| understanding of the particular course being taught. | | | | O'Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning Strategies |
| Beyond the students, however, one's teaching | | | | in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: |
| materials are also important in considering LLS and | | | | Cambridge University Press. |
| LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be | | | | Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What |
| analyzed to see whether they already include LLS or | | | | Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury |
| LLS training. Working with other language, learner | | | | House. |
| improves their listening and speaking skills. Audiotapes, | | | | Skehan, P. (1989). Language learning strategies |
| videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the | | | | (Chapter 5). Individual Differences in Second-Language |
| course at hand should also be examined for LLS or | | | | Learning (pp. 73- 99). London: Edward Arnold. |
| for specific ways that LLS training might be | | | | Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of |
| implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be | | | | 'communication stategy'. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper |
| surprised to find many LLS incorporated into their | | | | (Eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp. |
| materials, with more possibilities than they had | | | | 61-74). London: Longman. |
| imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other | | | | |